Sacraments are a frequently misunderstood subject to Protestants and Catholics alike. According to the Canon Code of Law 840, sacraments are:
...signs and means by which faith is expressed and strengthened, worship is rendered to God and the sanctification of human kind is effected, and they thus contribute in the highest degree to the establishment, strengthening and manifestation of ecclesial communion.[1]
During the Protestant Reformation of the 1600s, Martin Luther rejected all but two of the sacraments. Within the Catholic Church, sacraments were still celebrated in Latin until Vatican II in the early 1960s. As such, the understanding and observance of the sacraments remain a confusing subject for the church. This essay will describe the elements of the Catholic Sacraments and their biblical basis.
In the 13th century, there was a scholastic urge to define the number of sacraments. Previously there was no consensus on the standard number of sacraments, with Augustine mentioning several dozen. The Sentences, written by Peter Lombard in 1150, was one of the first publications to establish the seven rites that would eventually become the official sacraments of the Catholic Church.[2]
There are three types of sacrament. The sacraments of Christian Initiation include Baptism, Confirmation, and the Eucharist. The sacraments of Healing are Anointing of the Sick, and Penance and Reconciliation. Finally, the sacraments at the service of Communion are Holy Orders and Matrimony.
Baptism
Baptism is one of the two sacraments that are celebrated by both Catholics and more traditional Protestant denominations, such as Lutherans and Anglicans. The sacrament of Baptism is a one-time event in which the person is received into the body of Christ as a full member. It is the gateway to Christian life, and allows a person to receive the other six sacraments. Faith is the only requirement to receive the sacrament of Baptism, which need not be perfect and mature, but one that is developing.[3]
The word baptise comes from the Greek baptizein, meaning to “plunge” or “immerse.” It is a rite by which sins are washed away, and the recipient enters into the common priesthood of believers. Baptism is the most basic sacrament, and has only one element, water. Without water, there is no baptism, but as Luther said, “Without the Word, the water is no different from that which the maid cooks with.”[4] The baptismal water is consecrated by a prayer of epiclesis, in which the Church asks God for the power of the Holy Spirit to be present in the water so that those who will be baptised will be “born of water and spirit.”[5] [6]
There are examples of baptism throughout the Bible, beginning with the story of Noah and creation’s cleansing by water. During the exodus of the Israelites for Egypt, the symbol of baptism is demonstrated in the crossing of the Red Sea, and again as they cross the Jordan River into the Promised Land. These stories announce that their liberation was wrought by baptism, thus making it important in God’s eyes. In the New Testament, the baptism of Jesus, along with verses such as Mark 16:16, John 3:5, and Matthew 28:19-20 are used to show that Baptism is the divine will of God, and therefore a requirement to be accepted into the brotherhood of Christ.[7] The use of baptism in the early church is reported in Acts 2: 38, 41.
Confirmation
The sacrament of Confirmation is a rite of Initiation accomplished by a laying on of hands, or anointing with oil and the sign of the cross, for the purpose of bestowing the Holy Spirit. Like baptism, it is a one-time event that when conferred, imparts a sacramental character, or seal, upon the individual. This is an indelible configuration which provides a positive disposition for grace, secures divine protection, and supplies a vocation to divine worship to the service of the Church.[8] It is through confirmation that there is an “increasing and deepening of baptismal grace, which unites us more firmly to Christ and renders our bond with the Church more perfect.”[9]
Initially, Confirmation and Baptism were celebrated together, because of the intrinsic link between receiving the Holy Spirit and the forgiveness of sins. This changed in 416, when Pope Innocent I mandated that while priests could baptise, only those in the episcopacy could sign the brow with oil, bestowing the Holy Spirit on the catechist.[10] With the increase of rural parishes, the growth of dioceses, and the multiplication of baptisms throughout the year, it became increasingly difficult for the bishop to be present at all of the baptisms.[11] So, to keep with Pope Innocent’s mandate, a temporal separation of the two sacraments took place, with Confirmation occurring at the age of discretion. The 1917 Canon Code of Law establishes seven years as the age of discretion, making it the standard age for confirmation, after which first communion may be received.[12]
Verses such as Acts 8:14-17, 19:5-6 and Hebrews 6:2 are important to understand the biblical origin of Confirmation. In Acts, the author makes repeated references to the connection between the laying on of hands and the receiving of the Holy Spirit. Hebrews 6:2 is especially important because it lists Confirmation among the first elements of Christian instruction, as it perpetuates the grace of Pentecost.[13]
Eucharist
Eucharist comes from the Greek word εὐχαριστία (eucharistia) meaning thanksgiving. During the Last Supper, as Jesus consecrated the bread and wine, he offered a prayer of thanksgiving, and since then the word has been associated with the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper.[14] It is the central sacrament of the Catholic Church and does not consist merely of the breaking of bread and drinking of wine. It also consists of prayers, Scripture readings, and homily.[15]
For a believer that has been brought into the royal priesthood through Baptism, and anointed with the Holy Spirit through Confirmation, participation in the Eucharist completes Christian initiation.[16] Only those who have been baptised and confirmed are able to take part in the sacrament of the Eucharist, and if a mortal sin has been committed, the sacrament of penance must be done first.[17]
The concept of transubstantiation is a central tenet to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist, and the element that sets it apart from other Christian denominations. Transubstantiation was defined at the Council of Trent as “a singular and wondrous conversion of the total substance of bread into the body and of the total substance of wine into the blood of Christ, the external appearances only remaining unchanged.”[18]
The Eucharist is a celebration and remembrance of the Last supper, during which Jesus instituted the rite, and requested its repetition. There are four accounts of the Last Supper: 1 Corinthians 11:23-25, Luke 22:14-20, Mark 14:22-25 and Matthew 26:26-29. The verses in 1 Corinthians and Luke make specific reference to repeat what Christ did, and to do it in remembrance of his death.[19]
Penance
The sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation, more commonly known as confession, is the rite in which the penitent makes a confession of sins to an ordained priest or bishop. Penance was originally a “damage-limitation exercise, designed to deal with the problem of post-baptismal sins.”[20] Because Baptism is a one-time event, a supplementary sacrament was required to deal with post-baptismal sin.
Confession consists of three actions on the part of the penitent, and one on the part of the priest. The penitent’s actions consist of interior repentance, confession of sins to the priest, and the intention to make reparation, or penance. The action of the priest is absolution of sins.
Interior repentance is an acknowledgement of sin, and the desire for forgiveness. This is followed by going to confession and confessing mortal sins to the priest. Venial sins may also be confessed, but this is not strictly required as it is with mortal sins.[21] Following the confession, the priest asks the penitent to perform an act, or acts, of repentance. These acts are in no way an earning of forgiveness, rather an act to bring the penitent closer in communion with God.[22] Absolution is then given by the priest on behalf of God, “as by the sacrament of Holy Orders, priests have the power to forgive all sins.”[23]
The sacrament of Penance can only be received after Baptism and Confirmation, and is used to receive sacramental grace from the Holy Spirit. During Confession, the Holy Spirit bestows grace, trust, and openness onto the penitent in which to see the sin and confess it. The priest receives grace and authority through which he bestows God’s forgiveness.[24]
John 20:23 provides the primary biblical support for the sacrament of Penance, as Jesus states, “If you forgive the sins of any, their sins have been forgiven them; if you retain the sins of any, they have been retained.” With this, Jesus institutes the principles of Penance for all members of the church.
Anointing of the Sick
Prior to Vatican II, Anointing of the Sick was known as Extreme Unction, or more commonly, Last Rites. This involves being prayed over by a priest, with a laying on of hands and anointing with oil that is blessed by the bishop.[25] Anointing of the Sick has a four-fold effect: the gift of strength, peace and courage from the Holy Spirit; a closer unity with Christ; ecclesial grace; and a completion of conformity to the death and resurrection of Christ.[26] It can also include celebration of the Eucharist, and if required, be preceded by the sacrament of Penance.[27] For those about to die, celebrating a special Eucharist known as Eucharist as viaticum is an option.[28]
There is some dissent among church leaders as to whether Anointing of the Sick should still be considered a sacrament, given all the advances that have been made in medicine since the time this sacrament was created. Anointing of the Sick was established during a time of higher morbidity and mortality. Medical progress and accurate knowledge of human anatomy and physiology have greatly advanced disease treatment and prolonged lifespan. For example, it is now known that sickness is not caused by evil spirits, but by bacteria and viruses. Because of this, the question is being asked, “Has the time come to remove unction from the list of sacraments?”[29]
Throughout the New Testament there are many examples of Jesus and his disciples healing the sick by laying their hands on people. Luke 17:11-14 shows Jesus healing lepers, while in John 9:1-7 he restores a blind man’s sight. Luke 13:10-13 shows another time when Jesus is teaching in the synagogue and he cures the ailment that has kept a woman from standing straight for 18 years. In addition to these examples of Jesus’ healing power, James 5:14-15 provides the instruction that led to the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, stating, “Is anyone among you sick? Then he must call for the elders of the church and they are to pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer offered in faith will restore the one who is sick, and the Lord will raise him up, and if he has committed sins, they will be forgiven him.”
Holy Orders
Following Baptism, believers enter into the common priesthood of the faithful. This is the common level of which all believers are members. Those seeking to enter ministry must undertake the sacrament of Holy Orders, or Ordination. This sacrament separates ministerial priesthood from the common priesthood by “conferring a sacred power for the service of the faithful”[30] onto those that have taken this role.
There are three degrees of the sacrament of Holy Orders: bishops (episcopacy), priests (presbyters), and deacons. As St. Ignatious of Antioch describes, “These roles make up the organic structure of the church, for without them, one cannot speak of the Church.”[31]
Members of the episcopacy have received the fullness of the sacrament of Ordination. Episcopacy is derived from the Greek episkopos, which can be translated as bishop, or overseer. This makes a bishop the visible head of the church entrusted to him, and part of the apostolic succession.[32] The bishop is the minister of Ordination and he alone is able to confer the sacrament of Holy Orders on others.[33]
Presbyters are the majority of those receiving this sacrament. While bishops are often distant figures to the congregants of most churches, the priest is at home among them, and his is the familiar face of the local church.[34] Priests are the “coworkers of the Episcopal order,”[35] and as such share in the duties performed by the bishop.
The deaconate was created to serve the episcopacy and the presbyterate. It is the lowest level of the church hierarchy, for those called, “not unto the priesthood, but unto the ministry.”[36] They receive the sacrament of Holy Orders, but the term sacerdos does not apply to them. Sacerdos is Latin for priest, and in this context, stresses certain priestly functions applied only to priests and bishops.[37]
Matrimony
Within the Catholic Church, the sacrament of Matrimony is an indissoluble contract made between two baptised people before God, to commit to one another in a lifelong relationship as husband and wife. Marriage perfects the human love of spouses, symbolizing the union of Christ and the Church. It is the only sacrament not conferred by an ordained individual directly, as the man and woman confer marriage upon each other. It is, however, still a liturgical sacrament, over which an ordained minister must preside, at Mass within a church.
There are three purposes for marriage: creation and education of children, a remedy against sin to avoid pre-marital sex, and companionship and help for one another. These three purposes were laid out in the Common Book of Prayer in 1662, and despite reorganization and rewording through the years, they remain at the core of the sacrament.[38] With procreation and education of children being key to the very nature of the institution of marriage, the Church may refuse to marry those unwilling to have children. This is laid out in Pope Paul VI’s Humanae Vitae, in which he also condemns the use of all forms of artificial birth control, both to limit or encourage procreation.[39]
Marriage was part of God’s original plan for creation, even before the Fall. In Genesis 2:18, God said, “It is not good for the man to be alone. I will make a helper suitable for him.” He then creates a companion for man, and tells them to be fruitful and multiply. Throughout the Old Testament there are many examples of marriage, including those of Isaac, Jacob and Samson, but it is in the New Testament that Jesus raised the dignity of marriage to a sacrament. Matthew 19:3-9 is a key verse for biblical support of the sacrament of Matrimony, where Jesus describes a man leaving his father and mother to be united with his wife.
Despite the confusion surrounding the sacraments, they are an integral part of the Catholic Church, supported by a strong biblical foundation. Their tradition is grounded in a long standing history. Even though the majority of the sacraments have been rejected by the Protestant faith, the Catholic Church has re-evaluated their use to continue engaging with them in a meaningful way. They provide a solid framework on which faith is built, and provide occasions to express and strengthen faith, as well as celebrate the grace of the Holy Spirit. Each of the seven sacraments has a role, and while not all are necessary in the life of each individual, all are available to bring one into closer communion with God.
[1] New Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “SACRAMENTS.”
[2] James F. White, The Sacraments in Protestant Practice and Faith (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1999), 16.
[3] Catechism of the Catholic Church, (Ottawa: Canadian Conference of Catholic Bishops, 1994), 1253.
[4] Martin Luther, The Large Catechism of Martin Luther, trans. Robert H. Fischer (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 83.
[5] John 3:5.
[6] CCC, 1238.
[7] Ibid., 1218-0999999-27.
[8] Ibid., 1121.
[9] Ibid., 1303.
[10] Monika K. Hellwig, “Confirmation,” in The Modern Catholic Encyclopedia, 1st ed. (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1994), 779.
[11] CCC, 1290.
[12] Hellwig, Confirmation, 780.
[13] CCC, 1288.
[14] New Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. “EUCHARIST (AS SACRAMENT).”
[15] Hellwig, Eucharist, 288.
[16] CCC, 1322.
[17] Ibid., 1415.
[18] The Catholic Encyclopedia, Revised ed., s.v. “Transubstantiation.”
[19] NCE, Eucharist.
[20] John Macquarrie, A Guide to the Sacraments (New York: Continuum Publishing Company, 1997), 89.
[21] CCC, 1457-58.
[22] Macquarrie, Sacraments, 96-97.
[23] CCC, 1461.
[24] Maria Rule, “Authority in the Sacraments,” The Ecumenical Review, January 1, 131-136. http://www.proquest.com/ (accessed February 21, 2010).
[25] CCC, 1519.
[26] Ibid., 1520-23.
[27] Ibid., 1517.
[28] Ibid., 1524.
[29] Macquarrie, Sacraments, 158.
[30] CCC, 1592.
[31] Ibid., 1593.
[32] Ibid., 1594.
[33] Macquarrie, Sacraments, 169.
[34] Ibid., 190.
[35] CCC, 1562.
[36] Ibid., 1569.
[37] Macquarrie, Sacraments, 168.
[38] Macquarrie, Sacraments, 216.
[39] Pope Paul VI, “Humanae Vitae,” Vatican, http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html (accessed March 1, 2010).
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